Wednesday, February 29, 2012

介词一

介词概论(An introduction to Preposition ) 


介词又称前置词.  介词是连接词汇的词类, 其本身不能有甚么作用, 而是因其连接相关的词汇, 使其发生关连, 就产生了句中的意义.  在英文里, 介词在观念上和后面的宾语(object)紧抓或统摄, 也可说是严密的结合.  正如外动词(transitive verb)之紧密连接其宾语一样,  故介词不能没有宾语. (加黑加线以示其必要性) .  在此编辑者愿意把他对介词的文译名说出他的意见.  Preposition (Pre-), (position) 组成的单词.  有放在前面的意思, 也就是放在它的宾语的前面; 所以在1945年代的中译英文文法书或英文文法著作中还用前置词这名称. 现在翻成介词也很好, 因为它是介于它的宾语和要说明关系的主语的中间.  但介词之后的 “object” 应该称为宾语, 因为它没有动作, 只是静态的位置关系. 例如介词后是一个动词或形容词, 那末就应该赶快把它变成一个名词, without saying good-bye  (不辞而别), “say”是动词, 不可作宾语用, 必须变成名词才能用作宾语, 所以改变为现在分词 “saying” , 用作名词.  

再者, 中国人学英文, 最大的困难之一, 便是适当的介词用法.  这是因为介词用起来完全依从习惯用法的缘故, 比较任何别的词类更加显著些. 这种习惯法因词汇不同, 因语言不同, 在在都发生变化.  例如我们应该说 "The ship floats on water" , 这自然是极其明白的了, 但为什么要说  "The house is on fire" 而非 "in fire", 这对我们是不容易十分明白的;  而且习惯法这东西在各国言语里都不一样.  英文里要用 "in bed", 但在中文里却用在床上’(直译 "on bed") . 

英文动词及形容词含有特定的意味时, 往往需要一定的介词.  这些介词与前面的动词或形容词合成一种含有一定意义的成语 (idiom).  所以, 动词和形容词后接介词的用法要严密注意,  好的字典里大都有说明的.  有一本成语三百句(300 Idioms)” 全是与介词有关的成语, 因此编辑者只希望在这英文文法入门的博客中把常用的介词介绍给年青的朋友们. 

常用的介词如下:

about                by                    on                    above               down                across
out of               after                 outside             against              for                    over   
in                      since               around              through             at                     to
toward             before              under               behind              underneath        below  
into                   until                beneath            up                    beside              near  
upon                 with                 between           of                    within               beyond  
off                    without  

一些介词示如,   以表明其说明位置的关系:
            above                    over                        up                    on
below                   under                      down                beneath  

                                                                    above
                                                  Over                             up
                                                     .                                  ^
                                                     .                                  1
                                                     .                                  1
                                                     .                                  1
                                         _____on___________________1__________
                                                beneath                            I
                                                      .                                 1
                                                      .                                 1
                                                      .                                 1
                                                      .                                 v                         
                                                  under                          down
                                                                   below

                                                                  图一


又将另一组介词示如,   以表明其所要说明其有方向的关系:
            through                          into                   to
            across                            out of             

                                                            ______________
                                      through ------- I--------------------I------->         
                                                            Iß---across --à I
                                                            I                    ß into
                                                  ß  out of                      I
                                                            I_____________ I ß  to          

                                                                       

编辑者学介词时, 没有这么多的英文文法书谈及它的分类和用法.  只是用背文章及背英文会话, 像小孩呀呀学语一样.  久而久之就把介词及它所紧抓的宾语一併放进脑内, 用时便不致有错.  背记虽是笨拙的方法, 但对初学英文的人, 对这幺显著依据习惯用法的介词, 不背又能如何? 

介词的种类:
  1.  简单介词(simple preposition) :  in, by, for, to, during, out, across through等.
  2.  混合介词(compound preposition) : into, without, upon throughout .
  3.  组合介词 (group-preposition)  即几个独立的介词排列在一起的视为单独的介
      词作用, : by means of , in order to, on account of, with respect to, according to, in
                          consequence of 和 in spite of . 

依其使用的目的分:
1.      表位置的 (location) :  in, on, inside, between, above, outside under .
例如,   His pig is outside its cage.
2.      表方向的 (direction) : around, toward, through, into, past to.
例如,   John is running to his school.
3.      表时间的 (time) :  until, during in.
例如,  I will wait you until noon, and then I am leaving. 

提示:  此处的介词分类是供参考用.  很少介词只有一种意义的. 它可以表示多种不同的关系, 所以对介词的使用要多注意其习惯使用法.  也就是要多听, 多说, 多读和多领悟, 才能一窥英文语言的奥妙之处.


作业六十三 

找出下列各句中的介词及它的宾语:
1. What is the difference between natural pearls and cultured ones?
2. Both kinds of pearls are formed inside real oysters.
3. The pearl is produced by the oyster around a grain of sand.
4. In natural pearls, the sand or other particle enters by accident.
5. With cultured pearls, the sand is put into the oyster.
6. Natural pearls were too expensive for most people.
7. Many of them had never worn pearls before.
8. Pearls were set into jewelry of all kinds.


Monday, February 27, 2012

连词四

连词应用结语 

任何语文的连词都是作为接合及关联文句的各部分用的.  就文法上讲, 它们是句法的关节.  就意念上来讲, 它们的作用是表明逻辑的关系. 这后一种见解较为不容易领悟.  比方我们常常看见英文句子以“and”, "therefore" "but" 这一类的连词放在句子的起头.  要把这连词与上句的逻辑关系寻出来, 这是不难的; 但是要把它们跟上句的文法关系寻出来, 那可有点困难了, 因为每句可算是一个个别的统一体. 那就是要注意学习英文的要诀──口语的练习.  当初来美国时, 看到文章中用 “and” 在一句的开头, 总认为有些怪怪的.  后来听到他们在交谈时常常以 “and” 作一句话的开始.  也就是在前面一句话说完, 若意兴未了, 立刻用 “and” 接下去说, 它们是个别独立的, 但与前面所说的有逻辑关系. 

编辑者晨修读圣经罗马书12章第一节第一个字是 “Therefore”, 在英文文法上说它只与上句, 或前面所说的整段有逻辑关系, 凡从第九章至十一章所说的在这第十二章开始作出总结的逻辑关系.  能领悟这点后, 才可以了解为什幺有第十二章一节所说的缘由(这经节是编辑者的警句). 兹恭录如下以供参考:

Romans 12:1  “A Living Sacrifice”

1 Therefore, I urge you, brothers and sisters, in view of God’s mercy, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God—this is your true and proper worship.

(罗马书 12:1  “活祭  , ,   , , , .  , . )     

各类连词应用的说明:

   1.  对等连词:  and, or, but, so, for, yet, nor.
         例如,    He didn’t study, but he passed the exam.
                          (他没有读, 但是却通过考试.)
                      The rain stopped at last, and the sun shone.
                           (雨终于停止, 太阳出来了.)
                      The child hid behind his mother’s skirt, for he was afraid of the dog.
                           (小孩躱在母亲裙后, 因他怕狗.)
                       Shall I write the letter, or shall I do the homework first?
                           (我是写信还是先做作业?)    

2.  相关连词(Correlative conjunctions): both...and,   either...or,  neither...nor,
      not only...but also .       
      例如,    Both my friend and I enjoyed the concert.
                          (我的朋友和我都觉得这音乐会很好. )
                       You have either lost it or misplaced it.
                          (你已经失了它或者误置了它.)
                        Neither he nor I was responsible for the error.
                           (他和我都不负这错误的责任.)
                        Not only did I read it, but also (I) memorized it.
                           (我不谨谨读了它, 并且也牢记它.) 

3.  从属连词的应用分别阐明如下:
    1)表示时间: when, while,  as,  since,  till,  until,  before after.
            例如,   Since Peter became the CEO, our company has made a lot of money.
                            (自从彼得升为主管, 我们的公司赚了很多钱.)
                        Look before you leap. (三思而后行)
       2)表示条件: if, when, on condition(that), as long as unless.
            例如,   I won’t call you unless something important happens.
                             (直到一些重要的事发生, 我不会叫你.)
                        When he knows the answer, he’ll let me know.
                             (当他知道答案后, 他会让我知道.)
                        If I am rich, I’ll buy a car.
                             (若我富有, 我将买一辆汽车.)
        3)表示目的: so that, in order that, lest…should for fear that…might.
             例如,  For fear that her boss might forget, Mary kept reminding him of the
                              important conference.
                                   (玛丽为了害怕她的上司可能忘记这重要的会议,
                                     她不住的提醒他.)
                              They evacuated the building lest the wall should collapse.
                                   (他们迁出这建筑物因恐墙倒塌.)
        4)表示让步: although, instead, rather than, but, nevertheless, though,
                  however,  on the other hand, otherwise.
             例如,   Although the quality of this product is good ,the price is too high.
                             (即使这物品质地很好,但价格太贵.)
I’ll go swimming whether it rains or not.
                           (不管下雨与否, 我都要去游泳.)
 5)表示原因: because, as, since now that(=since)
            例如,     Since we have to respond to many people, we use a form letter.
                             (因这是对很多人的, 所以我们用正式的信件.)
                          Now that you mention it, I do remember.
                             (你现在提醒我, 我一定记牢.) 

结语: 连词的应用在英语中有其独特的重要性. 上面所述的三类连词都是用以连
  接子句, 但是你可曾领悟, 第三类的连词却是非常特殊, 用途也广,  使句子
变化多端, 令人读后, 回味无穷. 
                例如,  You will sing, and he will play the guitar. (你唱歌, 他演奏吉他.) 

                这是以对等连词结合的混合句子, 意思非常清楚, 没有其它甚幺连带的从属
关系, 较容易模仿造句.  若用从属连词, 你就发现这句子其它的部分都一样,
只是使用不同的从属连词, 其各句的意义都不一样.  用什幺从属连词, 就有
它独特的意念, 全然相异, 这点你要仔细的记牢. 

                    例如,   If you sing, he will play the guitar. (你若唱歌, 他就弹吉他.)
                                When you sing, he will play the guitar. (当你唱歌, 他就弹吉他.)
                                After you sing, he will play the guitar. (在你唱歌后, 他才弹吉他.)  
                                Until you sing, he will play the guitar. (直等你唱歌后, 他才弹吉他.)
                                Unless you sing, he will play the guitar. (除非你唱歌, 他才弹吉他.) 

                提示:   你在用从属连词时, 必须慎密思考你要表达的意念; 否则, 很容易使
                            你所造的句子词不达意, 失去了你想说的意思.


作业六十二 

试用下列从属连词造句:
 1. after      2. until     3.  if     4.  since    5. unless      6. when   7. before